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This is a list of notable programming languages , grouped by type. There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages. Thus, in many cases, a language is listed under multiple headings. Array programming also termed vector or multidimensional languages generalize operations on scalars to apply transparently to vectors, matrices, and higher-dimensional arrays. Assembly languages directly correspond to a machine language see below , although there may not be a mapping between an individual statement and an individual instruction, so machine code instructions appear in a form understandable by humans.
Assembly languages let programmers use symbolic addresses, which the assembler converts to absolute or relocatable addresses. Most assemblers also support macros and symbolic constants. An authoring language is a programming language used to create tutorials, websites, and other interactive computer programs. A constraint programming language is a declarative programming language where relationships between variables are expressed as constraints.
Execution proceeds by attempting to find values for the variables which satisfy all declared constraints. Command-line interface CLI languages are also called batch languages or job control languages. These are languages typically processed by compilers , though theoretically any language can be compiled or interpreted [ citation needed ].
See also compiled language. Message passing languages provide language constructs for concurrency. The predominant paradigm for concurrency in mainstream languages such as Java is shared memory concurrency.
Many curly-bracket languages descend from or are strongly influenced by C. Examples of curly-bracket languages include:. Dataflow programming languages rely on a usually visual representation of the flow of data to specify the program.
Frequently used for reacting to discrete events or for processing streams of data. Examples of dataflow languages include:. Data-oriented languages provide powerful ways of searching and manipulating the relations that have been described as entity relationship tables which map one set of things into other sets. Decision tables can be used as an aid to clarifying the logic before writing a program in any language, but in the s a number of languages were developed where the main logic is expressed directly in the form of a decision table, including:.
Declarative languages express the logic of a computation without describing its control flow in detail. Declarative programming stands in contrast to imperative programming via imperative programming languages, where control flow is specified by serial orders imperatives. Pure functional and logic-based programming languages are also declarative, and constitute the major subcategories of the declarative category. This section lists additional examples not in those subcategories.
Source embeddable languages embed small pieces of executable code inside a piece of free-form text, often a web page. Client-side embedded languages are limited by the abilities of the browser or intended client.
They aim to provide dynamism to web pages without the need to recontact the server. Server-side embedded languages are much more flexible, since almost any language can be built into a server. The aim of having fragments of server-side code embedded in a web page is to generate additional markup dynamically; the code itself disappears when the page is served, to be replaced by its output.
The above examples are particularly dedicated to this purpose. A large number of other languages, such as Erlang , Scala , Perl and Ruby can be adapted for instance, by being made into Apache modules. A wide variety of dynamic or scripting languages can be embedded in compiled executable code. Basically, object code for the language's interpreter needs to be linked into the executable. Source code fragments for the embedded language can then be passed to an evaluation function as strings.
Application control languages can be implemented this way, if the source code is input by the user. Languages with small interpreters are preferred. An esoteric programming language is a programming language designed as a test of the boundaries of computer programming language design, as a proof of concept, or as a joke.
Extension programming languages are languages embedded into another program and used to harness its features in extension scripts. Fourth-generation programming languages are high-level languages built around database systems.
They are generally used in commercial environments. Functional programming languages define programs and subroutines as mathematical functions and treat them as first-class.
Many so-called functional languages are "impure", containing imperative features. Many functional languages are tied to mathematical calculation tools. Functional languages include:. In electronics, a hardware description language HDL is a specialized computer language used to describe the structure, design, and operation of electronic circuits, and most commonly, digital logic circuits. Hardware description languages include:. Imperative programming languages may be multi-paradigm and appear in other classifications.
Here is a list of programming languages that follow the imperative paradigm:. Interactive mode languages act as a kind of shell: expressions or statements can be entered one at a time, and the result of their evaluation is seen immediately.
The interactive mode is also termed a read—eval—print loop REPL. Interpreted languages are programming languages in which programs may be executed from source code form, by an interpreter.
Theoretically, any language can be compiled or interpreted, so the term interpreted language generally refers to languages that are usually interpreted rather than compiled. List-based languages are a type of data-structured language that are based on the list data structure. Little languages [3] serve a specialized problem domain. Logic-based languages specify a set of attributes that a solution must-have, rather than a set of steps to obtain a solution.
Notable languages following this programming paradigm include:. Machine languages are directly executable by a computer's CPU. They are typically formulated as bit patterns, usually represented in octal or hexadecimal.
Each bit pattern causes the circuits in the CPU to execute one of the fundamental operations of the hardware. The activation of specific electrical inputs e. Individual machine languages are specific to a family of processors; machine-language code for one family of processors cannot run directly on processors in another family unless the processors in question have additional hardware to support it for example, DEC VAX processors included a PDP compatibility mode.
They are essentially always defined by the CPU developer, not by 3rd parties. The symbolic version, the processor's assembly language , is also defined by the developer, in most cases. Some commonly used machine code instruction sets are:.
Macro languages transform one source code file into another. A "macro" is essentially a short piece of text that expands into a longer one not to be confused with hygienic macros , possibly with parameter substitution. They are often used to preprocess source code.
Preprocessors can also supply facilities like file inclusion. Macro languages may be restricted to acting on specially labeled code regions pre-fixed with a in the case of the C preprocessor. Alternatively, they may not, but in this case it is still often undesirable to for instance expand a macro embedded in a string literal , so they still need a rudimentary awareness of syntax. That being the case, they are often still applicable to more than one language.
Contrast with source-embeddable languages like PHP , which are fully featured. These are sometimes called "macro languages", although in a somewhat different sense to textual-substitution macros like m4.
Metaprogramming is the writing of programs that write or manipulate other programs, including themselves, as their data or that do part of the work that is otherwise done at run time during compile time. In many cases, this allows programmers to get more done in the same amount of time as they would take to write all the code manually.
Multiparadigm languages support more than one programming paradigm. They allow a program to use more than one programming style. The goal is to allow programmers to use the best tool for a job, admitting that no one paradigm solves all problems in the easiest or most efficient way. Several general-purpose programming languages, such as C and Python , are also used for technical computing, this list focuses on languages almost exclusively used for technical computing.
Class-based Object-oriented programming languages support objects defined by their class. Class definitions include member data. Message passing is a key concept if not the key concept in Object-oriented languages. Polymorphic functions parameterized by the class of some of their arguments are typically called methods.
In languages with single dispatch, classes typically also include method definitions. In languages with multiple dispatch , methods are defined by generic functions.
There are exceptions where single dispatch methods are generic functions e. Bigloo's object system. Prototype-based languages are object-oriented languages where the distinction between classes and instances has been removed:. Procedural programming languages are based on the concept of the unit and scope the data viewing range of an executable code statement.
A procedural program is composed of one or more units or modules, either user coded or provided in a code library; each module is composed of one or more procedures, also called a function, routine, subroutine, or method, depending on the language. Examples of procedural languages include:.
Reflective languages let programs examine and possibly modify their high level structure at runtime or compile-time. This is most common in high-level virtual machine programming languages like Smalltalk , and less common in lower-level programming languages like C. Languages and platforms supporting reflection:. Rule-based languages instantiate rules when activated by conditions in a set of data.
Of all possible activations, some set is selected and the statements belonging to those rules execute. Rule-based languages include: [ citation needed ].
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